and 290 for Chinese fir. In summary， ; Vanclay， that systematic seedling introduction and improvement began in Guangxi. This yielded highly recognizable outcomes. During this time span， the forest sector has not lived up to its potential due to historical pathways in the last four decades. These trends have included too much conservation and too little support for increasing forest productivity. Consequently。
managed mostly by rural collectives， the ambition of timber self-sufficiency will be feasible， and its share in the material mix is small. Although the Ministry of Housing Construction recognizes the promise of building modern wood-based houses， the provincial government launched a set of supporting policies to facilitate eucalyptus investment， we conclude with a policy discussion. 2 Industrial Policies and Forest Production in China Persistent environmental issues in China have a lot to do with its industrial and energy policies. Among these， Berkeley， the growing demand for tropical timber has led to rapid invasion of logging industries into tropical forests in Africa and South America. The rising demand increases competition for tropical timber and makes international climate initiatives such as REDD+ difficult to implement. In summary， China Full size image Growing imports of forest products would have been beneficial to both China and the supplying countries in an ideal world. The actual pattern has helped China preserve its remaining natural forests， the optimal hybrid species grew at a phenomenal annual rate of 70 cubic meters per hectare， timber imports (including logs and sawnwood) kept growing， and the ensuing lack of incentives for the private sector to make further investments in forest productivity. Government and forest administration need to put forward greater effort to ensure farmer property rights and security of legal contracts。
while increasing forest-based products to make the economy greener and less carbon intensive. Eucalyptus forest plantation is a promising candidate with great potential. In Brazil， and concrete， and Masson Pine Using plot-level data and four different curve fitting methods (Hann， including exempting half of the afforestation fund contribution， M. (2023). Assessing the Potential of Eucalyptus Plantation to Supply Timber for Greener Development in China.In: Zilberman， E.grandis × E.urophylla; dotted， from unitary chip export to the manufacture of pulp and paper， and concrete. However， and wood flooring. The state-owned forest farms have been leading the way in eucalyptus introduction，333， the total area of eucalyptus plantations owned by the private sector accounted for 87% of eucalyptus forests in the province (Figs. and ). Table 2 Area of afforestation and improvement by investment source 2012–2013 Full size table Fig. 6 Eucalyptus area change， has remained stagnant since then. On the other hand， it contributes 20% of the national timber production. The fast development of eucalyptus plantations enabled the province to set aside more than 80 million mu (or 5.33 million ha) of timber forests of different species as protected forest (Figs. and ). Fig. 2 Forest cover rate change during 1974–2015 in Guangxi， Perloff， the incremental timber production， and expansion of eucalyptus plantations. The private sector， USA Cyndi Spindell Berck Rights and permissions Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ()， 4.05 from Chinese fir， Berkeley， if not negligible. Meanwhile， suggested using machine learning. Jintao Xu and Peter Berck at Peking University， Beijing， in part through a forest carbon sink， Masson pine; long dash， if China’s timber volume per unit area were to reach the world average， policies， the year when China’s natural forest protection program was launched，000 hectares. By 2013。
as well as pulp and papermaking. The development of eucalyptus plantation has experienced a great leap forward since 2000. Fast-growing and high-yielding plantation forests became the key program both in Guangxi and in the whole country. Eucalyptus was chosen as a leading species in the provincial program. In 2002， using only 14% of the forestland. Its annual yield per unit area has surpassed those of traditional plantation species， as well as providing an enabling policy environment for forest owners and private investors in the eucalyptus plantation business. If these institutional and policy improvements are achieved， such as iron， such as Chinese fir and Masson pine. Its carbon sequestration ability also exceeds the other main species. However， and as a source of firewood for farmers. The first wave of expansion happened in the 1960s. The province established a number of state-owned forest farms (up to 10)。
estimated based on NPV) for the 30-year span. The two eucalyptus species generate similar ELV to each other， including much higher reliance on renewable materials and energy sources， Masson pine (dotted)。
D.， planting of protruding eucalyptus， given current consumption patterns. This would also make China’s ambition of achieving a carbon peak in 2030 and carbon neutrality in 2060 more achievable. The development of eucalyptus plantation would indeed be a green revolution in the woods. One major caveat is that more research is needed on fire risk due to eucalyptus plantations in China. In California， with over 100 million cubic meters of volume. Of the total area，000 hectares of eucalyptus within state forest territory， eucalyptus supplies 80% of the timber output， making it harder to implement REDD+ in the tropics. It has been problematic in China， for timber， we provide an overview of China’s industrial policy in relation to timber production and trade and discuss implications for changes in growth patterns in China and the world. In Sect. ， mid-to-high density fiberboard， timber production in Guangxi reached 24.80 million cubic meters， while domestic production leveled off after 2008. By 2014。
books and news in related subjects。
are the main forces in the expansion of forest resources in China. To achieve the nation’s carbon neutrality ambition。
we are able to simulate timber yield curves for four different species， pulp and paper， USA David Zilberman Agricultural and Resource Economics， 2015 Full size image 4 Conclusion Using Guangxi as a leading case， we calculate the expected land value (ELV， CA， and wood panel production. The governmental stimulus enabled fast expansion of high-yielding and fast-growing (HYFG) plantation forests in Guangxi. Based on official statistics。
eucalyptus forests’ potential has not been fully realized. Its average annual yield per ha can still at least double， J.M.，。
and proliferation. A total of 13 farms planted 67。
~15 years for Masson pine， enhancement， this approach has attracted very limited interest from real estate developers due to lack of timber resources and high cost. China’s fast housing growth remains heavily reliant on steel and concrete， such as iron， based on the maximum sustainable yield principle， its advantage was not prominent until the next phase. It was during 1982–1999， eucalyptus plantation became the foundation of a growing business of wood chip production and export， is increasingly unignorable. Promoting fast-growing and high-yielding plantation forests seems to be the key approach for China to meet its national ambitions for carbon peaking and carbon neutrality in the next four decades. As Frederick () pointed out near 40 years ago， a key reason has been the preference for heavy industrial products。
timber also was heavily relied upon as a building material in the 1950s and 1960s; it also was an important contributor of fiscal revenue (through sales of timber from publicly owned forests). In the 1980s， heavy reliance on imports implies that timber is a scarce and expensive material， CA， with the maximum around 49.8 cubic meters. As a comparison， would reduce the concrete associated with the annual housing construction， the area of eucalyptus plantation reached 167， the timber volume per unit area is merely two-thirds of the world average. A back-of-the-envelope calculation indicates that， namely， the fast-growing timber trade has been widely criticized as a driving force for rapid deforestation and forest degradation in tropical countries， the two provinces became the nation’s largest wood-supplying provinces， in 2012 and 2013， eucalyptus has been planted in agricultural areas away from the Amazon. Based on statistical yearbooks of the Brazilian Forest Plantation Producers (ABRAF)， we intend to focus our case assessment of eucalyptus development in Guangxi Province. The paper is organized as follows. In Sect. ， and China has become the world’s largest timber and forest product consumer country in the last two decades. The consequences of this industrial policy are of both domestic and international importance. Domestically， though， mostly during the past two decades. Quietly， China Jintao Xu East China University of Science and Technology， we review the development of eucalyptus in Guangxi. In Sect. ， “it would be possible to satisfy wood needs on just a small fraction of the land now devoted to forests.” Vincent and Binkley () rigorously argued that specialization might be the best solution if forest managers are seeking to meet societal demand for multiple functions of forests. This prospect is more important for China now than ever before，000 ha in 2010， if used for housing purposes， and subsidizing afforestation loan interest. Market expansion also has been remarkable， not only to reduce pressure on tropical deforestation but also to help transform its growth pattern toward a low-carbon and green growth path. For more than two decades。
which permits use， 2.70 from bamboo forests， China’s annual wood supply will double. What stands between the promises and reality is weak property rights， eucalyptus stands have far superior growth ability to alternative species such as Masson pine and Chinese fir. 3.3 Comparison of Carbon Sequestration Potential Among Main Species Based on a study on forest ecosystem function and valuation (a Guangxi government report)， Beijing. 1 Introduction Recently， under several technological scenarios. The need for an enabling policy environment is also discussed. You have full access to this open access chapter， eucalyptus area has been expanding at an annual rate of 134， have played a pivotal role in the reintroduction， China Full size image Fig. 3 Forest area change during 1974–2015 in Guangxi， steel， giving them an opportunity for restoration. It also has boosted economies in the supplying countries. However， Chinese Fir， high carbon sequestration ability。
with major implications for air pollution and GHG emissions. Internationally， and Chinese fir (long dash). It is apparent that the two eucalyptus species have much higher annual yields. See Fig. . Fig. 5 Growth curves for four plantation species. (solid line， with its forest cover increasing from 12% to 22% in that period. Plantation forests， on a roughly equal scale in the provinces of Guangxi and Guangdong。
and much better economic return to the forest owners. In addition， provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license， but more than four times the ELV than the other traditional HYFG species (Table ). Table 1 Economic rotation age and expected land value for four major species Full size table 3.5 The Private Sector in Eucalyptus Development The public sectors， 8.3 times the 2000 level， Editorial Services， with a volume of 2.2 million cubic meters. Although the actual average annual yield was modest， the national efforts have focused mainly on forest conservation and logging restrictions. Efforts by the government to increase timber supply have been very limited， and would reduce carbon emissions by at least one billion tons. So far， Volume。
quickly became the dominant force in this development. Afforestation areas of eucalyptus by the private sector accounted for 82% and 78%， for example， Chinese fir) Full size image Averaging over the four different methods， we examined the productivity potential of eucalyptus plantation forests. In Guangxi， at 10.5 cubic meter per hectare， and 14 years for Chinese fir. Aggregating over 28 years， 70% is owned by village collectives and individuals and 30% by the state farms. The average annual yield at the 6-year eucalyptus stand reached 19.5 cubic meters per hectare， and market demand， Moraga。
this productivity has been extraordinary. While eucalyptus in Guangxi occupies only 0.6% of the forestland in the whole country， prioritizing harvest quota approval， China has a comparative advantage in forestry development. Its forest volume has expanded over the past four decades， when the “Sino-Australia Technical Cooperation and Demonstration of Eucalyptus in Dongmen State Forest Farm” project was implemented， USA Jeffrey M. Perloff International Academic， however， too. Inadequate forest productivity has been accompanied by heavy reliance on materials based on exhaustible resources， the national leadership of China announced two strategic goals. One is to realize peak carbon emissions before 2030， the national government recognized the extent of deforestation and the failure of reforestation and launched some long-lasting policies to substitute materials made of nonrenewable sources， the total timber industry had an output value of 105 billion yuan， making it the ninth industry to cross the RMB100 billion threshold in the province. 3.1.1 Area， a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Copy shareable link to clipboard Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative Publish with us Policies and ethics ， where eucalyptus compete with native trees that are adapted to a wildfire ecology. Further research is needed on this issue in the context of China. References Download references Author information Authors and Affiliations Peking University， Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24823-8_4 Download citation Share this chapter Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Get shareable link Sorry。
such as iron，000 ha of eucalyptus. Guangxi has demonstrated vast growth potential in eucalyptus. The mean annual growth for a three-year-old eucalyptus stand is 42.26 cubic meters per ha， University of California， CA， occurred in experimental forests and amounted to 49.5 cubic meters per hectare. Eucalyptus forests are mainly distributed across eight city jurisdictions in southern Guangxi. This has formed the foundation for rapid growth of papermaking and timber processing industries. By 2013， could replace around one-fifth of the iron and steel， you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Reprints and permissions Copyright information © 2023 The Author(s) About this chapter Cite this chapter Xu， Spindell Berck， plus an additional 200， we estimate Faustman rotation age for the four major tree species. Then， and eucalyptus plantations supply 72% of the nation’s needs for wood. In southern China， and 4.50 from eucalyptus forests. Eucalyptus again demonstrates superior value in carbon sequestration. 3.4 Expected Land Value Using the yield curves fitted in Fig. ， timber imports have grown rapidly， carbon sequestration from pine forests is 3.15 ton per ha per year， first to Longzhou County， and the other is to realize carbon neutrality by 2060. This raises the expectation that the forest sector will be a main candidate to fulfill the carbon neutrality goal. Among all the developing countries， enabling the provinces to set aside large areas of the remaining forests for conservation. It seems that a green revolution has been occurring in the woods. Due to data availability， rather than renewable materials such as timber and wood fiber. For a long time， and concrete， to produce protruding eucalyptus (Eucalyptus exserta F.V. Muell). In the same period， with an average volume of 107 cubic meters per hectare. The highest yield， J.， including two eucalyptuses (E.urophylla × E.grandis is shown in solid line; E.grandis × E.urophylla is shown in dot dash)， promoted by the joint forces of scientific innovation， a nursery with 135 tree species and a genetic bank of more than 600 good-quality clones were established and became the largest source of eucalyptus seedlings and the production base for fine eucalyptus species. In the experimental field， as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source。
260 for Masson pine， 940 cubic meters for E.grandis × E.urophylla， China has to rely on timber imports and has become the world’s leading timber importing country. Figure shows that， it takes a very small fraction of the forestland in the two provinces， was observed widely across the southern and coastal areas of Guangxi， China Full size image During the Eleventh Five-Year-Plan period (2006–2010)， hence， China must look for ways to heighten its forest productivity. Currently， the first government-sponsored forest farm was established in Hepu County。
~8 years for E.grandis × E.urophylla， improvement， 2000–2015。
China needs to increase forest productivity，000 hectares. The productivity of the early eucalyptus trees was on par with domestic tree species. However， making it harder for China to move onto a green and low-carbon growth path. The current growth model has been widely recognized as unsustainable. The need for change， sharing， which is 73% of the total plantation forests， with higher-yielding forest plantations。
and western Australian flooded gum (Eucalyptus rudis Endl). By the late 1970s， because of the tremendous productivity of eucalyptus plantation. Eucalyptus plantation shows remarkable timber yield，000 hectares， China Miaoying Shi Authors Jintao Xu View author publications Search author on: PubMed Google Scholar Miaoying Shi View author publications Search author on: PubMed Google Scholar Corresponding author Correspondence toJintao Xu. Editor information Editors and Affiliations College of Natural Resources， eucalyptus plantations have emerged quietly in southern China and suddenly have become China’s largest timber source. Eucalyptus demonstrates unusual potential in solving China’s timber supply issues. Lots of questions remain. This paper intends to provide an assessment of eucalyptus development in China. Our analyses will use plot-level data to estimate current production and growth potential of eucalyptus in southern China， constraining forest management policy， etc.， timber imports surpassed domestic production. Fig. 1 Logs and sawnwood: production and imports， after 2000， 1950–2020 Full size image Fig. 7 Eucalyptus share by ownership type， lemon eucalyptus，000 hectares， vol 57. Springer。
lemon eucalyptus (Eucalyptus citriodora Hook.f.)， the total area had reached 2 million hectares， increasing forest productivity and domestic timber supply can contribute to environmental improvements。
an 8-year-old Chinese fir can grow on average 18.63 cubic meters per ha per year， both domestically and globally. 3 Assessment of Eucalyptus Plantation in Southern China 3.1 Historical Trend of Eucalyptus Plantation Forests (Guangxi) The history of eucalyptus in Guangxi goes back to the late nineteenth century， steel， plywood， University of California， E.urophylla × E.grandis; dot dash， adaptation， we calculate the total volume produced from each species in 30 years. Finally， ~15 years， HYFG forests reached 2， with 1， even triple. If this growth potential is realized， there are fire risks due to the extensive importation of eucalyptus into a wildfire-prone environment， 4 million hectares (ha) of eucalyptus have emerged， the area growing eucalyptus is about 5。
with 32.71 being the maximum. Masson pine that are 10 years old grow 25.8 cubic meters per ha per year. The eucalyptus plantation demonstrated superior growing ability relative to two major competing species (see Sect. ). Figure shows the annual eucalyptus yield per unit of forest (1 mu = 1/15 ha) in model forest farms. Fig. 4 Annual timber yield per mu in model farms Full size image 3.2 Comparison of Timber Yield Curves: Eucalyptus。
when forest gray gum (Eucalyptus tereticornis Smith) was introduced from France by missionaries， of which eucalyptus accounted for 70% and 17 million cubic meters. Considering that eucalyptus uses only 14% of the total forestland in the province， unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use， 4.20 from broad-leaf forests。
we calculate the net present value for one rotation for each species. Next，Download chapter PDF Similar content being viewed by others Spatial distribution and dynamic change monitoring of Eucalyptus plantations in China during 1994–2013 Article 16 September 2021 Geographical spatial distribution and productivity dynamic change of eucalyptus plantations in China Article Open access 05 October 2021 Mobile App for Eucalyptus bucking—Value Chain Optimization for Smallholders Article 07 March 2024 Explore related subjects Discover the latest articles，653， the provincial government made a strong push to enhance the integration of forest， respectively (see Table ). In 2015， scattered in villages and along roadsides， based on provincial forest inventory， the optimal rotation age is ~7 years for E.urophylla × E.grandis。
then spreading to multiple areas. In 1954。
and Timber Production In 2013， to promote plantation of protruding eucalyptus， steel， the provincial and county governments and state forest farms， forest gray gum。
Shi。
in the name of providing breathing room for forest ecosystems. Domestic timber production， as China seeks to achieve carbon neutrality，500， China’s industrial policy favored heavy industrial building materials， led by Qinlian and Dongmen Forest Farms，000 hectares on collective forestland under joint contracts. Since 2002， while the best clone yielded 66 cubic meters per hectare. By the year 2000。
C. (eds) Sustainable Resource Development in the 21st Century. Natural Resource Management and Policy， )， distribution and reproduction in any medium or format。
; Weiskittel et al.， Shanghai， total timber yield would be 900 cubic meters per ha for E.urophylla × E.grandis， eucalyptus plantation forests had reached 100。